Philosophy and Science in the Italian Renaissance 意大利文艺复兴时期的哲学和科学

The common impression that the Renaissance represented in every way a marked improvement over the Middle Ages is not strictly true. Such was especially not the case in the field of philosophy.

严格地说，普遍印象中，文艺复兴在每个方面都呈现出比中世纪显著的提高，这并不正确。尤其在哲学领域就不是这样。

The early philosophers of the Italian Renaissance rejected Scholasticism, which had given a very high place to the use of human reason, and took delight in a mass of childish superstitions and mystical childish acts. Since the Scholastics had made Aristotle their intellectual god, the majority of the early humanists decided to go back to Plato.

意大利文艺复兴早期的哲学家们抵制经院哲学（中世纪占统治地位的西方基督教神学和哲学派别，其权威的基础为拉丁神父和亚里斯多德及他的评论家们），经院哲学已经给了人类理性的使用以很高的地位，并喜欢大量幼稚的迷信和神秘的幼稚行为。因为经院哲学家们已经把亚里士多德当成他们有智力的上帝，所以早期的人文主义者们大多数决定回归到柏拉图。

The leaders in this movement were such men as Gemistus Plethon (1355-1450)， Marsiglio Ficino (1433-1499), and Pico Della Mirandola (1463-1494), most of whom were members of the Platonic Academy founded by Cosimo de Medici.

这场运动的领导人们是像Gemistus Plethon（1355—1450）、Marsiglio Ficino（1433—1499）和Pico della Mirandola（1463—1494）这样的人物，他们大多是柏拉图学院的成员，该学院是由科西莫·德·美第奇创立的。

Unfortunately the Platonism of these men was not the pure kind at all. The greater number of it was made up of the Neo-Platonist teachings of Plotinus together with various mythological additions which had been accumulated throughout the Middle Ages. The exponents of this philosophy were as blindly uncritical as any medievalist in his devotion to Aristotle, in following what they believed to be the teachings of Plato. Indeed, one of the great aims of the Academy was to reconcile Platonism and Christianity and by that means to build a new faith in which worship of the pagan past would agree to the promise of a life to come that could be equally controlled.

不幸的是，这些人的柏拉图主义哲学完全不是纯粹的那种。它的大部分由柏罗丁（205-270，埃及裔古罗马哲学家，创建了新柏拉图主义，他的著作被收于《九章集》中）的新柏拉图主义（由柏罗丁和他的后徒于公元3世纪亚历山大时期发展起来的哲学体系；以柏拉图学说为基础，带有神秘主义色彩和一些犹太和基督概念，假定只有一个本源，万物来源于此，单独的灵魂能由此神秘地与之统一）教义和各种神话学的增加物一起组成，这些神话学增加物是在整个中世纪中已经积累起来的。这种哲学的倡导者和拥护者们，追随他们相信是柏拉图（提出）的教义，就像任何中古学家（中世纪研究家）热爱亚里士多德一样，盲目地不加批判。实际上，这个学院的最大目标之一，就是将柏拉图主义和基督教调和起来，并通过这种方法建立一种新信仰，在这种信仰中，过去异教徒的崇拜将接受那个承诺：一种可以被平等控制的生活即将来临。

Pico della Mirandola went one step farther and urged a universal religion composed of a mixture of Platonism, Christianity, and the Jewish Kabbala, that fantastic compound of magic, numerology, and mysticism which had been elaborated mainly by followers of Philo and the Neo-Pythagoreans from the pre-Christian era to the end of the Middle Ages.

Pico della Mirandola走得更远一步，他极力主张一种普遍的宗教，由下列混合而成：柏拉图主义、基督教、犹太人希伯来教义（犹太原旨主义者神秘教义的一种集合体，常基于对希伯来圣经的神秘解说）、魔法巫术的奇幻混合、数字命理学(研究数字的超自然含义和它们对人的生活假定的影响的学科，根据出生日期等数字来解释人的性格或占卜祸福)、已经主要是被Philo的追随者们和新毕达哥拉斯主义者们从前基督教时代到中世纪末所详尽阐述了的神秘主义。

注：Platonic：

柏拉图并没有发明带有他名字的术语或概念，但他的确将性欲看作更高层次爱的根源。文艺复兴时期柏拉图的信徒马尔西利奥·菲奇诺，交替地使用术语 amor socraticus和 amor platonicus表示为上帝之爱准备的两个人之间的爱。按照菲奇诺的用法，Platonic（已作为一个形容词在英语中出现，描述与柏拉图有关的事物，首次记录于1533年）逐渐被用来指异性之间的精神恋爱。在我们这个世纪，Platonic已用于指同性伙伴之间的关系。尽管这个词的概念是高尚的，但这个术语可能被更多地应用于一些方式，并导致塞缪尔·理查森让他的小说《帕美勒》中的人物说：“我确信，而且一直确信，柏拉图式恋爱是柏拉图的胡言乱语”

But not all the Italian humanists were crazy worshipers of Plato. Some in their zeal for a revival of pagan culture sought to reawaken an interest in Aristotle for his won sake and not as a strong support of Christianity. Others became Stoics, Epicureans, or Skeptics. The most original philosophers of the Italian Renaissance were Lorenzo Valla, Leonardo da Vinci, and Niccolo Machiavelli.

但是，并不是所有的意大利人文主义者都是柏拉图的狂热崇拜者。一些人有着为复兴异教徒文化的热情，寻求重新唤醒对亚里士多德的兴趣，这是为了他自己的好处，而不是作为对基督教的有力支持。其他人变成了斯多葛派、信奉伊比鸠鲁学说的享乐主义者、或怀疑主义派（古希腊怀疑主义学派，尤指埃利斯的皮浪学派成员(公元前360?-272?)）。意大利文艺复兴最起源的哲学家们是Lorenzo Valla、达·芬奇和尼克尔·马基雅维利。

The fearless and sensational attempts of Lorenzo Valla into the field of historical criticism have already been noted. He was not equally obedient as a philosopher. Declaring himself a follower of Epicurus, he admitted the highest good to be peaceful pleasure, strong disapproved of asceticism as completely useless and worthless, and insisted that it is irrational to die for one’s country.

Lorenzo Valla在历史批判主义领域勇敢无畏的、令人激动的努力已经很著名了。作为一个哲学家，他并不同等地屈服。他宣称自己是伊比鸠鲁的追随者，他承认最高级的善是和平宁静的快乐，强烈反对禁欲主义，认为那完全无用和不值得，并坚持为国家而死是不理智的。

Although Leonardo da Vinci wrote nothing that could be called a philosophical essay, he may yet be considered a philosopher in the true sense of the world; for he was one of first to disapprove firmly of the reliance upon authority as a source of truth and he urged the use of the reasoning method. It may be worthwhile also in these troublous times to write down his severe criticism on war, which he called “that most cruel madness”. He wrote that “it is an infinitely cruel thing to take away the life of a man”, and he even refused to disclose the secret of one of his inventions for fear it might be used by careless rulers to increase the cruelty of war.

虽然列奥纳多·达·芬奇没写什么可以称为哲学评论或哲学随笔的东西，却仍然可以被认为是一个真正世界意义上的哲学家；因为他是首先坚定反对把权威信赖地当作真理来源的人之一，他还主张推理方法的使用。在那些动乱不安的年代里，写下他对战争的严厉批判，将战争称为“最残酷的疯狂行为”，也是值得的。他写道：“剥夺一个人的生命是无比残酷的事”，他还甚至拒绝透露他的一项发明的秘密，因为怕它可能被欠考虑的统治者们用来增加战争的残酷。

Niccolo Machiavelli is by far the most famous —— and also the most infamous —— political philosopher of the Italian Renaissance. No man did more than he to overturn the basic political doctrines of the Middle Ages, especially the ideas of limited government and the ethical basis of politics. He frankly admitted his preference for having complete power as necessary to solidify and strengthen the state, and he expressed his deepest disregard for the medieval idea of a moral law limiting the authority of the ruler.

尼克尔·马基雅维利是迄今为止最著名——也是最声名狼藉的——意大利文艺复兴时期的政治哲学家。没有人，在颠覆中世纪的基本政治教义方面，比他做得更多，特别是他的受限制政府的思想，和政治的伦理基础的思想。他坦白承认自己主张拥有完整全部的力量，这力量是巩固和加强国家所必须的，并表达了对“道德法律限制统治者权威”的中世纪思想的最深漠视。

For him, the state was an end in itself. The supreme obligation of the prince should not move back from adopting them. No considerations of justice or mercy or the holiness of agreements should be allowed to stand in the way. Cynical in his views of human nature, Machiavelli thought that all men are caused only by motives of self-interest, particularly by desires for personal power and material success. The head of the state should therefore take nothing for granted as to the loyalty or affection of his subjects. He should assume that all men are his potential rivals and should try hard to play them off one against another for his own advantage.

对他来说，国家是在它自身之中的终结（？）。王子的最高义务不应该从采用它们退缩（？）。不应允许任何对公正、仁慈或协议的神圣性的考虑成为障碍。他对人类本性的观点是愤世嫉俗的，他认为，所有人都只被私利的动机所推动，特别是对个人权力和具体成功的渴望。因此，国家领导人对关于属下的忠诚或友情之类的事情，不应视为理所当然。他应该假设所有人都是他的潜在对手，并应为了他自己的优势和利益，尽全力使他们互相争斗。

Machiavelli also rejected the medieval notion that a static society is desirable. He declared firmly, on the contrary, that a state must either expand and develop or undergo the certainty of decay.

他也反对那种“一个静态稳定的社会是值得要的”的中世纪观念。相反，他坚定地宣称：国家必须要么扩张和发展，要么忍受确定的衰败。

In spite of the blaming words that have been heaped upon Machiavelli for his unmoral teachings, he remains a significant figure in the history of political theory. Not only his separation of politics from ethics, but also his suggestion of a positive law created by the state and maintained by physical force, in place of the law of nature, serves to make him the real predecessor of modern conceptions of government. His is significant also as the first important realist in political theory since the time of Polybius. He described the state not in accordance with some lofty ideal but as it actually was in his own day. And it is pitiable fact that the essential parts of his description would fit the official practices of most rulers ever since.

不管责备马基雅维利的言论，那是因为他的不道德教义而堆在他头上的，他保持了政治理论史上意义重大的形象。不仅因为他的将政治从伦理中分离开来，还有他的提议：由国家创立并由物质力量维持的不容置疑的法律以取代自然法律，使他成为现代政府观念的真正前辈。他是意义重大的人物，还因为他是自波利比奥斯（前200?-118?，古希腊历史学家，他四十卷的罗马历史现仅存五本）时代以来，政治理论方面第一个重要的现实主义者。他描述国家不是要与某种崇高思想相一致，而是因为国家实际上在他自己的时代中。令人同情的事实是：他描述中的本质部分，从那时到现在，一直适合大多数统治者的职务实践。

Not only did the narrow attitude of the early humanists in Italy stop the progress of philosophy; it also hindered for some time the advancement of science. The early humanists, as we have seen, were not critically minded. They accepted the authority of the Neo-Platonists with deceivability worthy of the Dark Ages. Moreover, their interests were in art and literature, not in science. Parts of this emphasis may undoubtedly be put down to the fact that the leaders of the Renaissance for some time had only a limited knowledge of Greek achievements. The early pagan revival was mainly a revival of Latin great age. And it will be recalled that the contributions of the Romans to science were very few and mediocre.

意大利早期人文主义者们狭隘短浅的态度，不仅阻止了哲学的进步，有时还阻碍了科学的进步。早期人文主义者，正如我们看到的，没有批评的思想。他们以堪比黑暗中世纪的可欺骗性，接受了新柏拉图主义者的权威。此外，他们的兴趣在于艺术和文学，而不是科学。无疑，这种强调可以部分归因于文艺复兴的领导者们——他们有时对希腊的成就知识有限。早期的异教复兴，主要是拉丁伟大时代的复兴。我们能够记起：罗马人对科学的贡献几乎没有，而且很普通。

But in spite of the unfavorable influence of early humanism, Italy became by the fifteenth century the most important center of scientific discovery in Renaissance Europe. Men from all over the continent came to study in her universities and to profit from the researches of her distinguished scholars. The foundations for nearly every major discovery of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were laid in Italy. Such was notably the case in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, physics, and medicine.

但是，虽然有早期人文主义的不利影响，到十五世纪，意大利已成了文艺复兴的欧洲的科学发现的最重要的中心。人们从整个大陆来到它的大学里学习、研究，并从它的著名学者们的研究中获益。十五和十六世纪中，几乎每一项重大发现的基础都位于意大利。这种情况在天文学、数学、物理学和医药领域都很显著。

The achievement in astronomy was the revival and proof of the heliocentric theory that is regarding the sun as center. Contrary to the popular opinion, this was the work not of any one man but of several. It will be remembered that the ideas of the sun as the center of our universe had originally been set forth by the Hellenistic astronomer Aristarchus in the third century B.C. But then, some four hundred years later, the theory of Aristarchus had been in the place of the geocentric explanation of Ptolemy. For more than twelve centuries thereafter the Ptolemaic theory was universally accepted conclusion as to the nature of the physical universe. The Romans seem never to have questioned it, and it was adopted as a chief belief by the Saracenic and Scholarstic philosophers.

天文学方面的成就是日心说（认为太阳是中心）的复兴和证明。与流行的意见相反，这不是一个人的工作成果，而是好几个人的。人们将记住：太阳是我们宇宙的中心的思想，最初是公元前三世纪由希腊天文学家阿里斯塔克斯（前217?-145?，希腊语法学家和鉴赏家，闻名于其校订和研究《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》）提出的。但是然后，约四百年后，阿里斯塔克斯的理论却被托勒密(公元2世纪的古希腊天文学家、地理学家、数学家，地心说创立者，他的天文学建立在所有的天体都绕地球运转这样一种信仰之上)的地心说代替。从那以后的十二个多世纪里，托勒密的理论被普遍接受，成为关于物质宇宙本质的结论。罗马人似乎从未怀疑过地心说，它也被撒拉逊(原为叙利亚附近一游牧民族，后特指抵抗十字军的伊斯兰教阿拉伯人，现泛指伊斯兰教徒或阿拉伯人)哲学家和经院哲学家们接受为主要信仰。

It was first openly challenged about the middle of the fifteenth century by Niccolas of Cusa, who argued that the earth is not center of the universe. Soon afterward Leonardo da Vinci taught that the earth rotates on its axis and denied that the apparent revolutions of the sun actually occur.

约十五世纪中期，Cusa的Nicholas首次公开挑战地心说，他争论说地球不是宇宙中心。不久以后，列奥纳多·达·芬奇宣称地球绕轴自转，并驳斥说看上去明显的太阳的公转实际上是发生的。

In 1496 the now famous Pole, Nicholas Copernicus, came down into Italy to complete his education in civil and canon law. For ten years he studied in the universities of Bologna, Padua, and Ferrara, adding to his course in the law such subjects as mathematics and medicine. He also acquired an interest in astronomy and studied and worked for some years with the leading professors of that science. Upon returning to Poland he established his own observatory and devoted many weary nights to a study of the heavens. Lacking a telescope, he was able to make only a few observations with crude instruments he had planed for measuring the height and position of the sun and various stars. His conclusion that planets revolve around the sun was based primarily upon mathematical calculations and upon suggestions received from Italian scientists and from the works of ancient astronomers. Fearing the hostility of the church, he refrained from publishing the results of his work until 1543. The proof sheets of his book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, were brought to him on his deathbed.

1496年，现在著名的波兰人尼科劳斯·哥白尼（1473—1543，波兰天文学家，现代天文学创始人，他提出地球及其它行星绕太阳运动的日心说，推翻了托勒密的天文学理论即地心体系）来到意大利，完成他在民事和教会法方面的教育。他在波洛尼亚（意大利中北部城市，在亚平宁山麓，位于佛罗伦萨东北偏北；最早为埃特鲁斯坎的城市，公元前2世纪成为罗马殖民地；著名的波洛尼亚大学在公元425年作为一个法学院建立；人口455,853）、帕多瓦（意大利东北部城市，位于威尼斯西部，中世纪时是重要文化中心，以乔托、曼特纳和多纳泰洛的艺术和建筑作品而闻名，伽利略1592年到1610年在该市的大学执教；人口231,337）、费拉拉（意大利北部城市，位于威尼斯西南；13世纪早期埃斯特家族在此地建立了一个非常强大的公国，并使它成为文艺复兴时期一个繁荣昌盛的文化和艺术中心；人口123,200）的大学里学习了十年，在法律课程之外加修了数学和医药方面的课程。他还对天文学产生了兴趣，并与这门科学的一流教授研究和工作了一些年。一回到波兰，他就建立了自己的天文台，并投入了许多个令人厌倦的夜晚研究天空。由于缺少望远镜，他只能用粗糙的观测器械做很少的观测，他计划通过这些观测来测量太阳和各种星体的高度和方位。他的研究结论——行星绕太阳公转，其基础主要来自数学计算、意大利科学家们发来的建议，和古代天文学家们的著述。由于害怕教会的反对，他压着他工作成果不出版，直到1543年。他的书——《关于天体的运行》的校样，在他死前被送到了他的床边。

The most important astronomical evidence for the heliocentric theory was furnished by the greatest of Italian scientists, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). With a telescope which he had perfected to a magnifying power of thirty times, he discovered the satellites of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, and spots on the sun. He was able also to determine that the Milky Way is a collection of celestial bodies independent of our solar system and to form some idea of the enormous distance of the fixed stars. Though there were many who held out against them, these discoveries of Galileo gradually convinced the majority of scientists that the main conclusion of Copernicus was true.

日心说理论最重要的天文学证据，是意大利最伟大的科学家伽利略·伽利雷(1564-1642,意大利天文学家、数学家)提供的。他用自己修改完善的放大率达三十倍的望远镜，发现了木星朱庇特（统治诸神主宰一切的主神，古罗马的保护神，朱诺的弟弟和丈夫。靠近太阳的第5颗行星，太阳系最大的行星，绕太阳公转的恒星期，按与太阳的平均距离777,000,000公里（483,000,000英里）算，为11.86年；其平均直径约为138，000公里（86，000英里），质量约为地球的318倍）的卫星、土星萨杜恩（罗马神话中的农神。距太阳第六远的行星，太阳系第二大行星，绕日公转周期29.5年，公转平均半径约1,425,000,000公里/886,000,000英里，平均直径大约119,000公里/74,000英里，质量是地球的95倍）的环，和太阳的斑点。他也能确定银河是独立于我们太阳系的大量天体的集合，并对恒星的超远距离形成了一些思想。虽然有很多人坚持反对这些成果，伽利略的这些发现还是逐渐地使大部分科学家们信服了：哥白尼的主要结论是正确的。

The final triumph of this idea is commonly called the Copernicus Revolution. Few more significant events have occurred in the intellectual history of the world; for it overturned the medieval world-view and paved the way for modern conceptions of mechanism, skepticism, and the infinity of time and space. Unfortunately it contributed also the decline of humanism and degradation of man, since it swept man out of his majestic position at the center of the universe and reduced him to a mere particle of dust in an endless cosmic machine.

日心说思想的最终胜利普遍被称为哥白尼革命。世界知识史上，几乎没再发生过比这更重大的事件；因为它颠覆了中世纪的世界观，并为现代的机械论、怀疑主义和时间与空间的无限等观念铺平了道路。不幸的是，它也促成了人文主义的衰落和人类的降级，因为它把人从宇宙中心的高贵位置上清扫了出去，并使人类降格为仅仅是无限的宇宙机器中一颗灰尘微粒。

In the front rank among the physicists of the Renaissance were Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo. If Leonardo da Vinci had failed completely as a painter, his contributions to science would entitle him to everlasting fame. Not the least of these were his achievements in physics. His researches in the fields of hydraulics and hydrostatics went far beyond anything previously attempted. His conclusion that “every weight tends to fall toward the center by the shortest way” contained the important part of the law gravitation. In addition to his accomplishments in pure science he worked out the principles of an astonishing variety of inventions, including a diving boat, a steam engine, an armored fighting car, and a marble saw.

文艺复兴的物理学家中，名列前茅的是列奥纳多·达·芬奇和伽利略。即使达芬奇作为一个画家完全失败了，他对科学的贡献也将为他赢得永恒的名声。他在物理学领域的成就可不是最少的。他在水力学（研究液体静态和动态行为的一门物理科学和技术）和流体静力学（物理学的一个分支，研究静止压力下的液体）领域的研究远远超过了以前的任何努力。他的结论“任何重量/重体都趋向以最短路径落向中心”，包含了重力定律的重要组成部分。除了纯科学方面的成就，他设计出的各种各样发明的原理多得令人吃惊，其中包括潜水船、蒸汽机、装甲战斗车、大理石锯。

Galileo is especially noted as a physicist for his law of falling bodies. Skeptical of the traditional theory that bodies fall with a speed directly proportional to their weight, he demonstrated by actual test from the leaning tower of Pisa that the distance covered in the fall increases as the square of the time involved. Rejecting the Scholastic notions of absolute gravity and absolute levity, he taught that these are purely relative terms, that all bodies have weight, even those which like the air are invisible, and that in a vacuum all objects would fall with equal speed. While yet mere youth he was led from his observation of a swinging lamp in the cathedral of Pisa to the discovery of the important principle of the equal intervals of the movement. Galileo seems to have broader conception of a universal force of gravitation than Leonardo da Vinci, for he perceived that the power which holds the moon in the closeness of the earth and causes the satellites of Jupiter to circulate around that planet is essentially the same as the force which enables the earth to draw bodies to its surface. He never formulated this principle as a law, however, nor did he realize all of its implications as did Newton some fifty years later.

作为物理学家，伽利略因为他的落体定律而特别著名。他怀疑传统理论所说的：物体以与其重量成正比的速度下落，就通过从比萨斜塔（扔铁球）的实际测试证明了：物体下落时经过的距离随所用时间的平方而增加。他否定了经院学派关于绝对重力和绝对浮力的观念，宣称：这些都是完全相对的关系，所有物体都有重量，甚至那些像空气一样不可见的物体也一样，真空中所有物体将以相同速度下落。伽利略还只是个年轻人时，他就从对观察比萨大教堂里摆动的灯，而发现了摆运动周期相等这样的重要原理。伽利略似乎比列奥纳多·达·芬奇对万有引力有更广泛的概念，因为他察觉到：把月亮控制在地球近旁的力量、导致木星的卫星绕这颗行星公转的力量、使地球能把物体拉向它表面的力量，这些力量本质上都一样。然而，他从未把这个原理用公式表述为定律，也没认识到这个原理的所有含意和推论，就像牛顿在约50年后一样。

The record of Italian achievements in the various sciences related to medicine is also an impressive one. As early as the fourteenth century a physician by the name of Mundinus introduced the practice of dissection at the University of Bologna as the only proper source of anatomical knowledge. Somewhat later Fallopio discovered the human products, or Fallopian tubes, and Eustachio described the anatomy of the teeth and rediscovered the tube which makes him known. A number of Italian physicians contributed valuable information to the circulation of the blood. One of them described the valves of the heart, the lung artery, and the aorta, while another located the valves in the veins.

在与医药相关的各类科学中，意大利的成就记录也给人深刻印象。早在十四世纪，一位名叫Mundinus的内科医生，在波洛尼亚大学引入了解剖实践，作为解剖学知识的唯一正确来源。过了一些时候，加布里埃莱·法罗匹（Gabriele Fallopio，1523-1562，意大利解剖学家）发现了人类生殖，或者叫法罗匹输卵管（人和高等哺乳动物雌性生殖系统的一对纤细管子，通过它将卵子从卵巢传递至子宫），巴托洛米奥·埃乌斯塔乔（Bartolommeo Eustachio，1520-1574，意大利解剖学家，现代解剖学创始人，以其对人耳和心脏的描述而著称）描述了牙齿的解剖组织构造，并重新发现了输卵管，这使他著名。大量意大利内科医生为血液循环贡献了有价值的信息。其中一个描述了心脏瓣膜（中空器官或管道，如静脉或动脉血管中的膜状结构，能收紧或关闭以防止通过的体液倒流）、肺动脉和主动脉系统（血管的主干道，将血液由心脏左侧输送到除肺部外的所有肢体及器官的动脉里），而另一个定位了静脉瓣。

Even more significant was the work of certain foreigners who lived and taught in Italy. Andreas Vesalius, a native of Brussels, issued the first careful description of the human body based upon actual investigation. As a result of his extensive dissections he was able to correct many ancient superstitions, including the one about a single incorruptible bone supposed to be the necessary nucleus of the revival of the body. He is commonly considered the father of the modern science of anatomy.

某些在意大利居住和教书的外国人的工作甚至更意义重大。安德烈亚斯·维塞利亚斯（1514-1564，佛兰德斯解剖学家和外科大夫，现代解剖学奠基人，主要作品《人体结构》(1543)，以对尸体进行细致解剖为基础）,布鲁塞尔(比利时首都和最大城市，位于比利时中部；官方使用双语制（法兰德斯语和法语）；1830年成为比利时首都；人口2,395,000)本地人，发表了第一份基于实际调查研究的认真的人体描述图。作为广泛解剖的结果，他能够纠正许多古代